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- language viewed in term of milestones
  (one word --> multiword utterances)
- non-linear development
- children may show different performances depending on:
   conversation partner
   task demand
   child's current level of motivation

- acquiring is an unconcious process
- learning is a concious process

- even in womb babies percieve langauge:
  melody
  language itself
  specific voice of mother/ father
- if children left completely isolated from social contact, they die

- non-verbal turn taking
- cooking
- babbling
- join attention (deictic gaze, pointing)
- first manual gestures
- first word utterances
- single sentence utterances

- reaction to environment
- paticipate cooperatively in dialouge
  child and mother anticipate to another's behaviour
- child needs respomse from environment (organised actions)

- earliest and most basic unit of signaling in the vocal mode
- vocal production of infant seems to solicit a pause and attention
  and therefore response from caregiver

- is vocal ability that discloses other modalities, rythmic and
  movement
- restricted to phonemes of caretaker language
- all children babble the same phonemes
- training of speech organs
- two different forms of babbling:
1. reduplicative babbling - production of repeated sequences of
    identical syllable (bababa)
2. variegated babbling - mix of syllables (bama)

- deictic gaze and pointing
- ability to follow anothers pointing gesture or gaze (join visual   
  attention)
- clarification request

production of communicative pointing gestures with visual checking
  - given by the caretaker who provide the right word for object,
    child shares attention and interest
  - gesture-speech combination allows child to express 2 elements
    of a sentence
  - iconic gestures and gestures that carry meaning

- or single word utterances
- particular sounds that pick out a particular object, person or event
- simplification strategies:
  reduction
  onomatopoeia
  fronting /l/ > /b/
  stopping /t/ > /d/   
  gliding
  denasalisation
  phonation mode does not change

- emerge in two-word combinations
- 16-30 month)
- production with gestures in the beginning to express complex ideas

- dialogue as a social act
- languages are learned better in a community
- first langauage cannot be learned, just acquired --> to ceratin level
- motherese and motionese adress the child better than normal
  language
- overgeneralisation and backsliding

- aim was to improve methods of langauge teaching by investigating
  how people learn langauges
- strongly influenced by Chomsky
- there is assumed to be a critical period for language which starts
  at about 2 years and ends somewhere around puberty

- FLA as a set of orior habits, already firmly in learners mind which interferred with learning of L2 at points where the twolanguages differ
(behaviourist theory)
- imitation is important, perfectionism, corrective feedback (audio-lingual-method)
- same errors in English from learners with different background!

- SLA is so much less successsful than FLA
- children are better than adults
- learner are good and bad in SLA, depending on:
  intelligence
  motivation
  aptitude

- critical period for language acquisition cannot be transfered to SLA,
  but is at least age-sensitive
- adults are quicker than young children at learning syntax,  
  morphology and lexis
- children are better at phonology:
  - natural ability to aquire language declines with maturity -
    critical period
  - about 12 years a child is able to think in abstract terms, develops
    meta-awareness - cognitive hypothesis
  - affective barriers inhibit acquisition after puberty - affective
   hypothesis
- makes it difficult for adult learner to develop integrative motivation
  more likely to have instrumental motivation

- immigrants to the USA was the age of arrival more important than
  the lenght of residence which determines native-like achievement
  of the language
- difference between children who arrived before and after their
  puberty

- evidence that children acquire a SL as a first language
- adults use general cognitive abilities for learning

- learners tend to transfer aspects of their FL to the SL
  - positive transfer
  - nagative transfer
- error analysis is helpful, it might reveal the development in target
  language. Are essential components of process of language
  learning - creative construction hypothesis

- learner centered approaches: commuicative Approach, community
  language learning
- learner influence/ determine learning goals, syllabus
- may interfere with student assessment
- motivationpositively influenced by autonomy
  instrumental - to get a qualification
  integrative - interest in the language and language community
- teacher as moderator of the learning process

Monitor Model
- a nativist model
- learner were to focus on formal accuracy rather than on
  communicating their message

- comprehensible input, just above the language
- just was the learner produce is required - input hypothesis

Antwort

- language acquisition as a form of cognitive skill
- comparable to other cognitive skills
- key processes in skill learning are
  automatisation
  restructing - revision rules that may result in decline performance
  processing - optimal performance recquires in mixture of both
  - automatic processing (lacks flexibility, nor origional)
  - controlled processing

- two sorts of knowledge
  - declarative knowledge - knowledge you learn at school
  - procedual knowledge - the ability to perform

- influencal are salience an dfrequency of input and processability
- more complex structures are acquired after simple ones

Antwort

Antwort

- language is acquired by the frequency with which linguistic items
  occur
- interactionist theory emphasises the social and cooperative nature
  of language acquisition
  - negotiation of meaning
  - modified input

- invokes Vugotskys ideas of ZPD
  - difference between a child's mental age as measured by problems
    it can solve unaided ans the level of ploblem-solving it can achieve
    when aided by an adult
- ZPD might partly explain differences in achievement in school
  because children might differ in their ZPD
- suggests that learners can benefit from help from their interlocutors
  at the point language development has stopped and is open to new
  development
- learning is more than immitation
- learners are more focused on language when they encounter
  difficulties in production: learning occurs through langauge use
scaffolding - interlocutors speech help learner to communicate and
                           learn at critical points
                           provokes strategies of paraphrase, definition,
                           redefinition

broad: speaker of one language who can speak in another language

narrow: speaker with a native-like command of two languages

- more than 50% of the worlds population is bi- or multilingual
- monolingual situations are rare (Germany)

- offers an opportunity to look at the language acquisition of two
  languages
- question is, how does a person become bilingual?

- the language a person first learned? (sociologists)
- the language a person knows best? (linguists)
- the language a person uses most? (sociolinguists)

Alle these criteria lead to an unclear definition, what mother tongue actually is. People can meet some of the criteria better with one, others with another language.

- coordinate bilingualism
- compound biligualism
- subordinate biligualism
- additive biligualism
- substractive biligualsim
- complementary biligualism

- both languages are regarded as positively by the speaker's
  environment

- both languages acquired simultaneusly
- seperate environment (immigrant speaks L1 with parents and L2
  at school)
- words linked to different meanings, concepts
- language independent

- janguages acquired sequencial (L2 after L1)
- words linked to the same meanings (L2 pervieved through L1)
- langauges depend on each other (L2 on L1)

- languages acquired sequential
- L2 meanings only available through L1 (translation)
- L1 has a lower status than L2, ans thus become neglected
- results often semiligualism (immigrant children)

- L1 acquisition is interrupted by L2
- often both languages are mastered below the monolingual standart
- semilingualism, both languages are affected

- bothe languages have the same status
- used in different environments without preferece for one of the
  languages
- both languages and their culture carry the same value

- change of the language during conversation
- communication strategy when proficiency is not sufficient
- changing code as part of language interaction
- process of accomodation

- lexcal or semantic gaps i one language --> code mixing

- phenomenon of forgetting langauge is interesting for linguists
- loss of langauge in individuals as in whole speech communities
- maybe medical reasons (dementia, aphasia)

- immediate loss of language attrition starts after stopping to use it
- 2 years of stable proficiency
- retrieval of an acquired language is easier than acquireing a new
- lexis is more affected by language attririon than grammar

- critical threshold (age), younger learner have less difficulty to
  acquire a language, but attrite it faster
- same for beginner and advanced learner

child directed speech
- modified input: short sentences, basic vocabulary, repetition, slowly,
  longer pauses, segmentation
- proosdy: speech tempo and pitch (higher) adapted
- Gestures: Child directed angeling.
- Pointing at objects and talking to the child works --> the child looks
  at the object not the speaker
‐ Motionese (refers to deaf mothers?)
‐ Onomatopoeia (Tatütata)
‐ Labelling – one phonological representation per word

- Danger of overextension
- Categorization of lexica items

‐ No universal sign language. French SL related to American SL – share elements.
- British and American SL are fairly different (historical relationship, shared elements)

- Similarities between spoken and sign language are not mandatory because of different emergence processes, e.g. English in GB and US, but different SL
‐ Word order is action order

- syntax, lexis, morphology, phonology

- Similarity the sign and the related object, e.g. “roof” (with hands) for
  house
- Names, e.g. Westerwelle acne
- Spelling possible
- Abstract terms are negotiated within the SL community

- Place of articulation: close and away from the body
- Manual components:
   - Handshpae
   -  Movement
   - Manual dominance (one and two handed signs)
- Non‐manual components:
   - Facial expression
   - Gaze
   - Head
   - Expression of the mouth
- Upper body is used only

- Morpheme: smallest meaningful linguistic unit
- Classifiers: a sign may be modified to refer to a related object
- Singular, dual, plural (one, two, many)
- Comparative often marked by facial expression

- L1 attrition in L1 environment (injury, stroke)
- L1 in L2 environment (migration,language shift)
- L2 in L1 environment (re-migration)
- L2 once aquired in L2 environment

- proficiency determined by social context and quality of interaction
- nativ-like command in up to 4 languages possible
- may slow down the acquisition process
- are able to keep langauge apart, but also to mix them skillfully

Lexis
- Directional verbs
- Local prepositional objects
- Incorporating signs

Syntax
- Different sentence types (interrogative, declarative, etc.) --> determined by facial expression

- Deaf children try out handshapes like hearing children try out
phones/phonemes to discover the phonological structure of a language
- 8months first word among deaf children (earlier than with speaking
children)
- Facial expressions and gestures are very important
- As the hands as the primary articulators are seen by the child and can be corrected by the parents, articulation can be acquired more easily
     -Difficult handshapes acquired later
- Motionese – simplified child directed sign language

Dialect vs. diatype

- Diatype: variation according to use, depending on sitatuation (ESP)
- Dialect: variation according to the speaker ( Sociolects, regional dialects,  genderlects, age
‐ Lect is any form of language shared by a speaker community, dialect is often used synonymously with lect but originally only refers to regional variation.

Observing which language a speaker uses allows us to make a statement on which group he accommodates to most strongly, e.g. Black American Vernacular (Tiger Woods doesn’t use it).

GenE
- Includes standard and non‐standard (e.g. slang) forms of English, but no traditional dialects)
StE
- Associated with better education, “correct” grammar and vocabulary, differs from country to country
Traditional dialects
- Developed from old English and doesn’t share grammar and
vocabulary items with modern GenE
Creoles
- Mixture of English and indigenous language, spoken in at least the
second generation.
- A mother language (vs. Pidgin)
Accent
- Only differs in pronunciation (ask someone from Glasgow)

- Pronunciation (rhoticity)
- Grammar (third person singular s)
- Vocabulary ((Am)elevator vs. (Brit) lift)
- Pragmatics (who is speaking)
- Class (register)
- Gender
- Ethnicity (AAVE multiple negation possible)
- Age (baby talk, older people use different lexis)

Aphasia
Apraxia
Dysarthria

- Loss of the ability to produce and comprehend language
- Brain affected
- Problems with written and spoken language
- Production perception affected

- four types of aphasia

- Patients are non‐fluent
- No communication possible
- No speaking, writing, comprehension
    • Communication only possible via gestures and pictures (if at all)
- Neologisms

- Non‐fluent
- Relatively normal comprehension
- Broca’s area in the brain impaired
- Telegraphic speech, most important lexical items are looked for
- Consciousness about the problem
- Communication possible

- Fluent
- Meaningless speech
- Changed syntax, phonematic and semantic paraphasias,
- Neologisms
- Patients not concerned about the correctness/meaningfulness of
their utterances
- Communication heavily affected, almost impossible

- Fairly normal comprehension
- Word finding difficulties -->paraphrasing
- Communication possible

(Speech) apraxia
- motorplanning disorder, no control over articulators  signals cannot be processed

Dysarthria
- Speech disorder, articulation is affected

- difference to dialect
- according to use

ESP as a type of language variation
‐ (Dia‐)lects: language variation according to user
‐ ESP: language variation according to use > dialect

ESP is an English language code (belonging to GenE) used in a restricted field (not language!) to simplify communication and minimize misunderstandings (more accessible for non‐native speakers)
   ‐ E.g. unambiguous transfer of technical information > airtraffic

‐ Special: restricted language
‐ Specific: focus on task to be carried out using a certain language code
    - restriction of language skills: English for Science and Technology doesn’t require the writing of short stories
    - selection of vocabulary and grammar --> math text uses math vocabulary

purpose
medium
personal manner/ style

Purpose
‐ explanatory / expository
‐ argumentative
‐ descriptive
‐ directive

Medium
‐ Spoken
‐ Written
‐ Written to be Spoken (scripts for actors, lecture scripts)

Personal tenor or style
‐ dictionaries: register
‐ attitude: derogatory (critical) or humorous

‐ refers to areas of AL: lexicon, grammar, language community, etc.
    - corpus oriented research (lexicon, morphology, etc.)
‐ pronunciation is least important

English for Science and Technology
‐ passive use
‐ tense, aspect, and modal verbs > difference to StE
    - modals are distributed differently to GenE, almost all of them less as 50% as often, may occurs 14 times more often.
‐ non‐defining relative clauses
‐ rhetorical device
‐ nominal and nominalization (producing nouns by morphological processes) > more nouns (44% in EST, 28% in GenE)
    - combination of function verb and noun is common, e.g. make an investigation instead of investigate
    -  more compound nouns
‐ article use
‐ restricted use of personal pronouns

‐ morphology
     -  prefixation
     -  suffixation
‐ conversion/zero derivation
‐ acronyms
‐ abbreviations
‐ blends
‐ clippings
‐ composites

‐ lack of ambiguity --> highly sophisticated terminology
‐ creation of terms by
     -  borrowing from Greek or Latin
     -  Suffixation (Greek, Latin)
‐ Systematic terminologies, e.g. Chemistry

- Derivational process
- Terminology
- EST/ ESP Text types
- text models

‐ larger text patterns
‐ procedural lexical items
‐ message types
    - memo
    - schedule
    - report
    - essays
    - etc.

‐ EST texts follow a fixed structure (formalized)
    - Introduction
    - Review
    - Methods
    - Results
    - Discussion
‐ Other cohesive devises, deictic use of tense and voice (indicating likeliness)
    - This vs. that
    - Present vs. past tense
‐ Enumeration, advance, labeling, reporting, etc.
‐ Patterns of logical development, problem > solution, argument > counterargument, statement, justification

‐ spelling code and fiuges (alpha, charlie, tango)
‐ callsign details for ground stations and aircrafts
‐ message structure
‐ distress and emergency measures
‐ conventional expressions
‐ phraseology, ie. Set of compulsatory skeleton of speech

‐ The branch of linguistics that deals with applying linguistics to solve crimes. Usually forensic laboratories are run by law enforcement
     - Language of courtroom interaction
     - Language based issues in the law
     - Written language of the law

‐ Phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics and speech acts, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, plagiarism
     - E.g. used to analyze speech sample

--> profile of writer or speaker

- text
- style
- error
- writing
- phonetic analysis

text
- gender, education, age, region, special interests, seriousness, native speaker status
writing
- handwritten or typed
error
- orthography, punctuation, grammar, lexical features
style
- choice of grammatical forms, choice of words
- formal vs. informal style, syntactic complexity
phonetic analysis
- background noises etc.
- investigative vs. evidential
     - investigative > speaker identification
     - evidential > transcription, disputed utterance determination (what was said), speech enhancement, speaker identification / elimination (voice compilation)

‐ signatures are hard to fake because they represent one graphical item and are produced unconsciously (you don’t think about how you sign, you better think about whether you sign)  signatures are drawings not written text

‐ indentations – marks from formerly written texts left on a piece of paper

‐ changes in the vocal tract > children can be distinguished from adults
‐ diseases > larynx cancer, cold
‐ alteration of voice (deeper, whisper --> helium vs. bromine)
‐ sociolinguistic statement on the speaker (social group, ethnical background, etc.)
‐ speech impediment/pathology (clinical linguistics?)
‐ location of speaker (e.g. tram noise)

‐ pronunciation of consonant and vowel sounds
‐ unusual idiosyncratic pronunciations
    - involves knowledge of dialectology and sociolinguistics as well  
      as phonetics
‐ use of IPA (diacritics)
‐ voice quality (resonance characteristics)

‐ sound spectogram and spectral averaging --> PRAAT
     - intensity
     - duration
‐ fundamental frequency averaging

Objectivity: a set of fixed criteria that have to met and are the same for every member of the group tested. Rather true/false questions than open questions. Different testers will come to the same result
     - Results are not manipulated to show a desired result

Reliability: repetition of the test produces the same result, retest. Prerequisite: testee chosen by the same criteria
     - Repetition of the test doesn’t lead to other results

Validity: the test checks on what it is intended to, i.e. usefulness, meaningfulness, appropriateness
     - A vocabulary test doesn’t check on grammar

criterion tests: a certain criterion to pass the test is set, e.g. 6 out of 10 questions have to be answered correctly
     - tests students ability

norm test: here a norm has be met, i.e. the testee’s results are compared to a reference norm (e.g. the best performer). TOEFL is a norm test.
     -Tests the students performance in relation to the test group or test norm.

Aptitude test: determines the testee’s ability to meet the needs or outperform in certain areas. E.g. SAT.

Achievement test: checking on knowledge that should have been acquired in in the past, e.g. exams at university

Diagnostic test: Can’t be failed. Tries to find out whether the testee needs special support in the tested area. “Non‐achievement” test.

Proficiency test: Checks skills, not a certain content. Makes a statement on the testee’s command of a language.

not all the words of a language fit in one lexicon

- field of applied linguistics
- connections to syntax, grammar, text tech…
- fundamental motivation for linguists