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Power Promotors:
surmount barriers of will through their hierarchical potential

Expert Promotors:
surmount barriers of capability through their expert knowledge

Barriers, power-bases and contributions

a) a specialization among different persons, 
b) the need for cooperation and coordination
c) a struggle for a power-balance of different key persons involved in a coalition for the innovation.

• 1. There is no innovation without external cooperation partners.
• 2. The cooperation with external partners is hindered by inter-organizational barriers.

>> Relationship promotors help to surmount these barriers

Main task Bridging Boundaries

A person

• who actively and intensively
• advances inter-organizational exchange processes
• through good personal relationships to key actors  who dispose of critical resources

Power sources

• Social competences
• Knowledge of networks
• A portfolio of relationships

• No knowledge of appropriate partners > matching prob
• No will to cooperate  > trust & commitment prob
• No ability to cooperate > understanding prob
• No permission to cooperate > third-party prob

>> Relationship Promotors help to surmount these inter-organizational barriers

Dimensions: Time, Quality, Budget
Haupteinfluss von RP, PoP und ProP werden geringer



Interaktionseffekte nehmen bei RP, PoP und ProP ab und beim Rest deutlich zu

inward-looking roles of expert-, process- and relationship-promotor show growing negative effects

The negative effects of the power promotor are explained by the highly innovative projects that could not be improved by increasing resources. Because of that, the common reason for positive effects of TMTs does not apply.

The higher the degree of innovation – the more heavily the top
management will be overstrained  – the more it should count on
lower and middle management, whose professional task it is to
deal with challenging projects. 

outward-looking roles of technological gatekeeper, relationship-
promotor and project leader show growing positive effects.

Explaination:
With a new technology not only the technological knowledge of the
innovating company changes, but also of their competitors, customers, suppliers and research partners. 

That is why the company also has to keep up with this newly arising
external knowledge and its new applications.

Why do they work?

• no formal order
• they act on their own motivation
• but they have a common goal

How do they become a team?

• Always access to each other
• Speak the same language
• Mutual respect
• Open, constructive and solution-oriented dialogue
• not working alone for a long time

What is the result?
* Power promotor learns benefits, risks and requirements of new technology
* Expert promotor learns political restrictions and resource limits
* Mutual trust and commitment
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Highest creativity when an individual is high in all three components
(domain-relevant, creativity-relevant skills and task motivation)

1) problem or task presentation
external stimulus or internal stimulus

2) preparation
Building up and/or reactivating store of relevant information and response algorithms

3) response generation
Search memory and immediate environment to generate response possibility

4) response validation
test response possibility against factual knowledge and other criteria

5) outcome
complete attainment of goal (success) or no reasonable response possibilities generated (failure) or some progress towards goal.

Intrinsic motivation: motivation to engage in work for its own sake, because it is interesting, engaging or satisfying

extrinsic motivation: motivation to work for something apart from the work itself, such as reward, recognition, dictates

Intrinsic motivation is conducive to creativity

controlling (=nonsynergistic) extrinsic motivation is detrimental to creativity

informational/enabling (=synergistic) extrinsic motivation can be conducive to creativity

1. Organizational encouragement (encouragement of creativity)
An organizational culture that encourages creativity through the fair,
constructive judgment of ideas, reward and recognition for creative
work, mechanisms for developing new ideas, an active flow of ideas and a shared vision of what the organization is trying to do

2. Supervisory encouragement (encouragement of creativity)
A supervisor who serves as a good work model, sets goals appropriately, supports the work group, values individual contributions, and shows confidence in the work group

3. work group supports (encouragement of creativity)
A diversely skilled work group in which people communicate well, are open to new ideas, constructively challenge each other‘s work, trust and help each other, and feel committed to the work they do

4. Sufficient resources (resources)
Access to appropriate resources, including funds, materials, facilities, and information

5. Challenging work (pressures)
A sense of having to work hard on challenging tasks and important projects

6. Freedom (autonomy or freedom)
Freedom in deciding what work to do or how to do it; a sense of
control over one‘s work

7. Organizational impediments (Organizational impediments to creativity)
An organizational culture that impedes creativity through internal
political problems, harsh criticism of new ideas, destructive internal
competition, an avoidance of risk, and an overemphasis on the status quo

8. Workload pressure (pressures)
Extreme time pressures, unrealistic expectations for productivity, and distractions from creative work

1.  Challenging work (strongest positive effect!)
2.  Organizational encouragement (positive effect)
3.  Work group support (positive effect)
4.  Freedom (positive effect)
5.  Organizational impediments (negative effect)
6.  Supervisory encouragement (positive effect)
7.  Sufficient resources (positive effect)
8.  Workload pressure (negative effect)

Impact of employee personality measured by

• CPS
• Personality trait "openness to experience
• Innovative cognitive style

Impact of employee affect (mood/emotions) on creativity:
main hypothesis: Positive affect will enhance creativity by facilitating cognitive variation, e.g. it increases the breadth of material availablefor association by inducing a defocused scope of attention

1. Providing positive feedback whenever possible
2. Delivering both positive and negative feedback in an informational style that helps employees develop creative capabilities
3. Adopting a developmental orientation in order to enable employees to learn and make improvements
4. Focusing feedback on the task, not the person

Combination of personality & situation predicts creativity

Examples:

• Number of creative suggestions highest among employees with a combination of a) CPS and b) high job complexity
• Job dissatifaction positive for creativity if continuance commitment high & support from coworkers/organization high
• stress experienced at work/home not detrimental to creativity if leader-member-exchange high.
• negative mood positive for creativity if organization recongnizes and rewards creativity.

A team can be defined as a social system of three or more people, which is embedded in an organization (context), whose members have a common identity, and who collaborate on a common task (teamwork).

für Gemünden gilt team=group

1. forming orientation stage
> get to know each other

2. storming differentiation stage
> stage of power and coalition games

3. norming integration stage
> looking for harmony

4. Performing
> concentration on the goal

1. small number of people

2. complementary team members' skills

3. specific goals and meaningful purpose
> goals are defined
> goals are output-oriented and "SMART"

4. common approach

5. mutual and individual accountability

Viel zu einfach sagt Gemünden!
Input

• individual-level factors - skills, attitudes, personalities
• group-level factors - structure, level of cohesiveness, size
• environment-level factors - task characteristics, reward structure, level of stress

GROUP INTERACTION PROCESS

Output

• Performance outcome - quality, speed to solution, number of errors
• other outcomes - satisfaction, cohesiveness, attitude change--

Organizational context
a context that supports and reinforces competent task work (reward, education, information)

group design
design that prompts and facilitates competent work on the task
(Structure of the task, Composition of the group, Group norms about performance processes)

group synergy mediator
assistance to the group by interacting to minimize losses and create synergies

process criteria of effectiveness
level of effort, knowledge and skill, appropriateness of task performance strategies

material resources mediator

group effectiveness
task out acceptable to those who receive or review it
capability of member to work together is strengthened
Members' needs are more satisfied than frustrated

1. productive output
should meet or exceed the performance standards of the "clients"

2. capability to work together should be enhanced through the social processes used

3. group experience should satisfy the personal needs of team members

Team design

• Team Composition
• Team Leadership

Process
Teamwork Quality

Outcomes

• Team Performance
• Personal Success

(1) Communication
(2) Coordination
(3) Balance of Member Contributions
(4) Mutual Support
(5) Effort
(6) Cohesion

Team members share important information on time.

The information received from other team members is precise.

The information received from other team members is useful.

The subtasks within the project are closely harmonized.

Goals for subtasks are clear and fully comprehended.

Goals for subtasks are accepted by all team members.

Recognition of specific potentials of individual team members. 

Team members contribute to the achievement of the team’s goals 
in accordance with their specific potential. 

Imbalance of member contributions causes conflicts in the team.

Team members help and support each other as the best they could.

Conflicts are easily and quickly resolved. Discussions and
controversies are conducted constructively.

Suggestions and contributions are respected by all team members. Suggestions are discussed and further developed.

The team is able to reach consensus regarding important issues.

Every team member fully pushes the project.

Team members make the project their highest priority.

The team puts much effort into the project.

There are conflicts regarding the efforts that team member
put into the project.

The team members are strongly attached to the project.

It is important for the team members to be part of the team.
Members feel proud to be in the team.

All team members are fully integrated in the team.

There is personal attraction between the team members.

Every team member feels responsible for maintaining and
protecting the team.

Evaluation of Team leaders and other team members korrelieren am meisten weil sie ihre eigene Leistung einschätzen. Außerdem haben sie mehr Kontaktkontakt.

Gemünden findet die Einschätzung der Team Leader am treffendsten

Zu Projektbeginn werden die wichtigen Entscheidungen getroffen, die den höchsten Einfluss auf die späteren Kosten haben.

TWQ is the most important predictor of team performance, followed
by integration between teams.

Commitment to the project and dysfunctional conflicts do not seem to be significant for team performance

WTC (=TWQ) is positively correlated with the three measures of BTC

Actively manage collaboration within and between teams to achieve high overall performance

Increase TWQ by appropriate team design (social skills) and
participative leadership style

Foster BTC by encouraging horizontal information flow, clarifying
interfaces between teams, setting integrative goals

At the team level only for a team climate of innovation less financial resources will lead to a higher success of innovation projects.

Innovation encompasses the two major stages

(1) creativity (development of new ideas)
(Creativity, we propose, requires individuals with creative characteristics, who feel free from threat and pressure, and work in a supportive environment.)

(2) innovation implementation (introduction and practical application of new and improved products, services and ways of doing things at work)
(Innovation requires diversity (of knowledge particularly), integration of people’s knowledge and efforts, external challenge or demand, and practical support for innovation.)

“Perceptions of the events, practices, and procedures and
the kinds of behavior that are rewarded, supported, and expected in a setting”

Climate refers to shared perceptions of the work environment (how
organizational members experience organizations and attach common meanings to their perceptions of the environment)

Team climate: considering the size and diversity of many organizations, team climate may be more relevant to group innovation than organizational climate.

(because of greater interaction frequency, task interdependence and
existence of a common goal in teams as compared to entire organizations)

Clarity of and commitment to shared team objectives or vision;

Definition of vision: an idea of a valued outcome reflecting a
higher-order goal and a motivating force at work.

Sense of safety within the group, i.e. non-threatening interpersonal
atmosphere of trust and support

Active involvement in decision-making and group interactions 

Shared concern with excellence of performance quality;

Emphasis on individual and team accountability, mutual monitoring, intra-team advice and critical-constructive appraisals

Expectation, approval and practical support of innovation
attempts (rather than routinely rejecting or ignoring them);
includes both articulated and actually enacted support

TCI alleviated the negative effects of high work demands
(Work demands negatively related to organizational performance when TCI was low (solid line) but not when TCI was high (dotted line))

Stronger pattern of relationships between TCI factors and innovation in research teams, probably because of greater scope and expectation to be innovative

In research teams, the 2 TCI dimensions support for innovation and task orientation yielded the strongest positive relationships with 3 indicators of innovation.

3 of the 4 strongest findings emerged for TCI factors (vision, support for innovation, task orientation)

weaker results for participative safety

too much intragroup safety might reduce productive conflict and enhance conformity

(Zuviel "Kuschel" verhindert produktiven Konflikt und sorgt für Konformität)

What implications for practice and management in organizations arise from our series of findings?

Interventions should focus on providing the group with

• high norms for innovation
• and creating a climate that is open to change
• and error friendly

 
Team members as well as team leaders and higher management
have to find a balance

• in truly supporting each other in developing and implementing new ideas
• and at the same time monitoring and critically appraising each other

Supervisors and team leaders should strive to provide the team with clearly stated, shared and visionary goals.

“the extent to which team members collectively reflect upon the team‘s objectives, strategies and processes as well as their wider organizations and environments, and adapt them accordingly“

strong implementation plans derived from reflection may enhance innovation

2 bureaucratic context factors:

Centralization: how power is distributed in a hierarchy and whether employees are encouraged to participate in decision making (high if decisions must be referred up the chain of command; low if employees have opportunities to act according to their inclinations);    
e.g., team leader ‘uses my work group‘s suggestions to make decisions that affect us‘

Formalization: extent to which rules are clearly specified and procedures standardized (if high, employee freedom and ability to engage in discretionary behavior is reduced);         
e.g., ‘our work involves a great deal of paperwork and administration‘

“To get creative results, managers should seek to understand employees‘ motivational orientations in context, so the combination of individual disposition and bureaucratic context yields the most desirable associations with creativity.

Decentralization
brings out the best in learning-oriented employees and attenuates (mildern) the negative of an avoid orientation on creativity. Thus, from a creativity perspective, decentralized decision making is attractive, even when it does little for prove oriented individuals.

Formalized practices
Although the creativity of prove-oriented individuals thrives in less formalized contexts, low formalization actually brings out undesirable tendencies in avoid-oriented team members.

the conclusion would be that creativity is best obtained by (where possible) not selecting avoid-oriented individuals for a team, while creating a team context characterized by high levels of decentralized  decision making and low formalization, to let learning-oriented and prove-oriented individuals flourish.“

“targeted employees‘ shared summary perceptions of the extent to
which their use of a specific innovation is rewarded, supported, and expected within their organization“

>> result of shared experiences and observations
>> strong implementation climate fosters innovation usw by

• a) ensuring employee skill
• b) providing incentives for use/disincentives for avoidance
• c) removing obstacles

(combined with innovation-values fit)

extent to which targeted users perceive that innovation use will foster (or inhibit) fulfillment of their values.

(combined with implementation climate)

Management
Coping with complexity (planning, organizing, problem-solving, determining budgets)

Leadership
Coping with change (providing direction, aligning people, motivating, inspiring)

“The ability to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute to the effectiveness and success of the organization”

1. Initiation phase > Nurturing
encouraging safety and ideas, being supportive, being open-minded, ensuring a non-judgemental climate

2. Discussion phase > Developing
obtaining opinions, evaluating proposals, agreeing implementation plans, pushing plans forward

3. Implementation phase > Championing
selling the proposal to all groups affected, gaining commitment, ensuring participation in implementation

4. Routinization phase > Validating/modifying
checking effectiveness, identifying weak links, modifying and improving the innovation

Transformational leadership: visionary, inspirational and stimulating leadership engendering higher levels of employee performance and satisfaction

Transactional leadership: exchange-oriented leadership (reward or punishment for good or poor performance)

leaders are sometimes high on both transactional and transformational leadership or low on both!

Augmentation effect: Increase in subordinate performance if supervisors exhibit transformational leadership in addition to transactional leadership

intervene and make corrections only when things already go wrong

perceived as exceptional, confident and trustworthy

encourage others to question assumptions and develop new approaches

Transformational and transactional leadership together explained an impressive 34% of the differences in unit performance (% of achieved goals after 1 year) 

Transformational leadership positive performance predictor

All 3 transactional factors negative performance predictors!

Transformational leadership more positively predicted performance when “support for innovation“ (team climate factor) was high 

dyadic leadership approach based on social exchange theory (leader may develop exchange relationships differing in quality with different subordinates)

High-quality LMX:

• high-quality relationship between supervisor and employee;
• high level of mutual trust, respect and loyalty; greater participation and freedom

High-quality LMX positively related to innovation directly and indirectly via enhanced ‘support for innovation’ (climate)

Authentic leaders are:

• Are aware of their own personal values and beliefs and act in accordance to them
• Are trustworthy and ‘of high moral character‘
• Support self-awareness and personal development among themselves and their followers

authentic leadership positively associated with job satisfaction,
voluntary extra effort, performance and sales

authentic leadership should be positively related to subordinates' engagement and creativity
e.g. because of enhanced intrinsic motivation and the use of balanced

1. Self-awareness
Understand own strengths and weaknesses and one’s influence on others 

2. Relational transparency
Show one’s ‘true self’ and reveal one’s real thoughts and feelings

3. Balanced processing
Ask for opinions that challenge own assumptions and analyze all
relevant input before making decisions

4. Moral perspective
Show behavior in accordance to one’s personal values rather than
external pressures

Performance appraisal:
Process of assessing or evaluating performance to make decisions (e.g., about promotions)

Performance development:
Evaluation of performance with the goal of providing feedback and suggesting developmental activities to improve performance

>> Performance management (PM)
Integration of performance appraisal and development in order to make performance-based decisions and improve organizational performance

“Diversity refers to differences between individuals on any personal
attributes that determine how people perceive one another”

Demographic differences (“background diversity”):
e.g., gender, age, nationality

Job-related differences (“job-relevant diversity”):
e.g. function, education 

Das eine versucht zu reagieren Schäden zu verhindern, das diversity-management versucht Vorteile rauszuholen.

Driven by
Equal opportunities: legal and moral concerns
Diversity managment: Business-needs driven

Focus on these outcomes
Equal opportunities: Numbers and problems
Diversity managment: Qualitative and opportunity

Benefits:
Equal opportunities: Opportunities improved for disadvantaged groups
Diversity managment: Opportunities improved for all
employees

1. Diagnose current situation, set aims, involve top managers
2. Multicultural workshops improving communication
3. Core groups confronting biases and stereotypes
4. Support groups and mentoring for minorities
5. Minority advisory councils reporting to management
6. Positive action programs (e.g. special training) for minorities
7. Appraise and reward managers who develop members of minority groups
8. Use, train and reward diversity champions
9. Measure business benefits (e.g. improved customer relations)
10. Spread ownership (involve not just HR, but all managers)

Information-decision approach
"give rise to varied ideas, perspectives, knowledge and skills"
"enhance innovation and problem-solving"

Theories of social identity and social categorization
"disrupt group processes, reduce cohesion and engender in-group favouritism by majority members."

Studies usually do not find strong (positive or negative) main effects of diversity on group performance or innovation, but identify circumstances under which diversity is more positively related to such outcomes.

team leaders should enhance information-processing motivation by

• engaging in intellectual stimulation,
• emphasizing the value of diverse views
• and increasing accountability for decisions and outcomes

they should enhance information elaboration and team identification by

• stressing interdependence
• and promoting a climate of safety

Transformational leadership (TL) helps to realize the performance potential inherent in educational/nationality diversity

and to alleviate the potential negative effects of age diversity

“A product or response will be judged as creative to the extent that (a) it is both a novel and appropriate, useful, correct or valuable response to the task at hand and (b) the task is heuristic rather than algorithmic”

Heuristic tasks: no clear goal or no obvious path to solution

additions:

• production of ideas that are both novel and useful
• key precursor to innovation
• creative ideas can relate to work procedures, products, services and organizing structures

"… a man willing to put himself on the line for an idea of
doubtful success. He is willing to fail. But he is capable of using any and every means of informal sales and pressure in order to succeed."

“Champions are defined as individuals who informally emerge in an organization and make a decisive contribution to the innovation
by actively and enthusiastically promoting its progress through the critical organizational stages.”

(1) Expresses Enthusiasm and Confidence
(2) Persists under Adversity
(3) Gets the Right People Involved

Barriers of Will
> Investment
> Acceptance

Barriers of Capability
> Development
> Implementation